Short book reviews and comparison of reviews Essay

Short book reviews and comparison of reviews - Essay Example Pramoedya Ananta Toer. This Earth of Mankind. New York: Penguin, 1996. Vol. 1 of Buru Quartet. Print. This Earth of Mankind is a novel about modernity, civilization, sex and sexuality in the society. The novel is set around the main protagonist, Minke who reflects on the real meaning of modernity, which he associates with â€Å"learning and science.†1 The idea of modernity and civilization is advanced as Minke shows his interest in electricity;2 he demonstrates modernity by using trains and smaller machines driven by oil and not steam. The novel starts by explaining factors of globalization and hence modernity. The novel also manifests the inner conflict in the main protagonists arising from conflict of interest between the colonized and the colonizer. The author utilizes the narrative approach to detail the life of the main protagonists, and how the protagonists advance the themes of colonialism, modernity, and sexuality. Through describing various inventions and developments in science, the author brings out development of modernity in the novel, and how it impacts the lives of the main protagonists. The author utilizes symbolism and descriptive language throughout the book. For example, the use of aspirin as the most powerful medicine to be discovered by humanity to symbolizes effects of modernity on humanity. The main perspective in the novel is the importance of the native Javanese culture as the main protagonists still fight to keep their identity in the society despite the rapid spreading forces of modernity that seek to abolish such cultures. This is observed through Minke who tries to find his real identity despite being in a Dutch school. The novel also brings out the ills of modernity in the society as prostitution and brothels became a status symbol in the society,3 and the oppression of the natives as seen in the rape of Annelies by Robert; a way to exert power for being associated with Europeans. The issue of mixed blood brews much conflict as Maurit’s father commits blasphemy by mixing the native and white blood, which is unforgivable. Thus the white is taken as a much superior race that cannot mix with the low class native blood. This is an issue of superiority complex, where the white is viewed as being much superior tot eh native. However, dispute the issue of mixed blood being contentious, the whites still continue to sleep with native prostitutes in brothels and to sire children with the natives, which is also mixing the native and white blood. The whites are thus hypocritical. This makes them to reconsider the racial boundaries and in some cases, the native can actually be assimilated into the white society to enjoy the prestige; an example being Minke who enjoys the prestige of the whites though from a mixed blood. Inner conflict in the main protagonists is the main aspect in the novel. Minke in his setting struggles to find his real identity in a society that ranks his native class at the lower end of social hierarchy. He is lonely and is forced to live with constant questioning by fellow students who probably were skeptical regarding his ability to make it in sciences as whites do.4 Nyai Ontosoroh faces serious inner struggles; she is a mistress to a white, though a native and is even mistreated by the same whites for being a native; she is used as a sex

Environmental Ethics Essay Example for Free

Environmental Ethics Essay Environmental ethics falls under the discipline of environmental philosophy that studies how human beings relate to their natural environment. This is a wide study that involves a variety of other disciplines such as those that study human relationships, economics, the earth’s structure and biology especially ecology. Human beings being the most superior of all the living things on earth have an ethical obligation to the environment concerning the earth, air, water, other organisms and the human population, both the present and the future generation. Environmental ethics brigs up a variety of issues concerning what, when, how and why we should consider this area of study. Aspects arising include the environment’s moral value, how sustainable are the policies on environmental protection, and how do these apply to the developing nations, and what policies should be put in place to ensure that the environment is safe guarded for the future generation, among others. This topic has been studied by many philosophers through the years, but it only came to be recognized as an independent discipline in 1970, due to awareness of effects of increasing human knowledge on the environment. Growing economics and populations, new technologies and development of industries all have had various adverse effects on nature, although aimed at improving life. The works of Rachael Carson, Paul Ehrlich, Aldo Leopold, among others brought about ethical concerns about the environment. Under environmental ethics, human beings have a duty towards the environment, on protection and conservation as well as having a quality life for themselves. In this context, contentious issues arise as to why we should be concerned about the environment. Should it be for us, the living human beings, the future generation, or for the environment itself regardless of our own benefits? Different personalities offer different answers to this question, hence different views have come up on environmental ethics. The issues of environmental ethics is of growing concern to the government and other institution including United Nations which have come up with incentives to people to value and appreciate nature. Earth Day which is held annually (first held in 1970) continues to create awareness and sensitize people on the value of the environment and why it should be protected. The Moral Standing We cannot handle ethics without reference to moral philosophy, which is concerned with individual behaviors and conducts. the moral standing depends on what is considered ‘right’ or ‘good’ and ‘wrong’ or ‘bad’ by an individual or a society. For instance, different societies have different views on areas like land and animal ownership, rights of the future generation, and many more. Personal conduct with respect to environmental ethics defines how people should interact with nature, regarding its exploitation and conservation. The moral standing of the ethical issues on environment are wholly placed on human beings as they are the only living things who can reason and decide on moral issues. Many of the environmental concerns revolve around man and how these affect him, thus the responsibility of environmental ethics should be solely man’s. Responsibility to the environment implies that we are aware of this task, we are able to do it, we are at liberty to do it or not, and carrying out of the task has an effect to others existing in the environment. This means that we know the damage we can cause to the environment, the effects of this damage and the prevention or solutions to these problems. This gives us a moral significance in environmental ethics, and gives us a central role. The moral standing therefore means we have the moral obligation towards nature and the capability to carry out this responsibility. When we consider environmental ethics, then, look at issues such as: †¢ Should we care about nature for itself while it’s people who really â€Å"matter†?  That is if not for human beings benefit; why else should we conserve the environment? And if depleting the natural resources is necessary for life improvement, why not exhaust it? †¢ Is the loss of biodiversity, destruction of scenic geographical features for human benefit such as in agriculture so harmful to man? Where is the need to conserve a species while it has no chance of survival in the near future due to changes in earth’s patterns? †¢ Is it right for a person to own land, it being a natural resource among others, or is it morally wrong?  Is it fair that 5% of the human population use 30% of natural resources, while in other less countries the population suffers due to lack of the basic resources such as food and clean water? Do these resources exist for the benefit of a few or should they be left free for use by all? †¢ Is it possible for human beings to improve nature, seeing how man seems to have no control over nature when it comes to events such as natural calamities? †¢ Do recent developments in technology relieve us of our duty of protecting the environment? For instance, does biotechnology with potential to create new species, or bring back an extinct species, relieve us of the duty to conserve the biodiversity? Or alternative sources of fuel give us a right to deplete the natural fuel reserve? †¢ Should we let nature take its course as it always has or try and preserve it without assurance that this is of any benefit, or that this only hinders the course of nature? Is there any way that nature can take care of itself without our hand, like self renewal? The main issue surrounding environmental ethics today is the activist movements on environmental protection that focus people on the wrong issues, that is the moral standing is more emotional than factual or logical. The following are essential in discussing environmental ethics and policies. Western Religion and Culture It has been viewed by some philosophers that the Western religion has adversely affected the environment as it teaches that human beings have dominion over the earth and subdue it. Others view this as a command to take care of nature as we have been left in charge. The command given in the bible to the first man â€Å"be fruitful and fill the earth† (Genesis 1:28, Holy Bible KJV) raises the question of population control, is it ethical for the sake of the environment or is it a direct defiance of God’s command? To address this sensitive topic, religion should be understood in context. At the time of the command there was only one man on earth, so he was required to ‘fill’ it, but now the earth is already ‘filled’. Is it logical to still apply the very same principles now as they did then? The culture of a people defines how they relate to and use the environment. Many of the historic events that shape the western culture have had a huge impact on the environment. Events such as the industrial revolution, technological advances and the modern culture have affected the environment. Culture can easily adapt to changing environments, as well as cause permanent change to different environments. The environment is very wide and continuous, while cultural practices are defined by the environment. Therefore it is ethical to put environment before culture, and change current lifestyles towards more nature friendly practices. The future generation Most of the damage to the environment is more likely to affect the future human population. This therefore calls on the currently living humans to consider the rights of those who are not yet born. We might not know exactly what that generation will require but we are well aware of the basic needs of living beings; food shelter and basic health. Based on these we can have a model of what the environment should offer the future human beings. Therefore it is our moral obligation to them to utilize nature as much as we need to but ensure that we do not deny them the enjoyment of the same. Animals Other animals should be considered when addressing environmental ethics, since they are sentient beings, that is are capable of feeling. Although animals come after humans, they have rights and should be considered according to what they are interested in, such as feeding, living in their natural habitat, and allowed their existence. Controversy about animal rights arises in what animals exactly should we grant rights to. For instance, are insects or other smaller animals in this category? Is it right to use animals for laboratory research for medical and other studies to better our lives? The simple answer to this question is that unless it is extremely necessary, animals should not be put at risk or in adverse conditions. The harm to animals should be justified and be limited to a certain allowable level. Ecofeminism Women are seen to be closer and more in touch with nature; this is claimed by feminists concerned with the environment (Cochrane, 2007). This is because of their ability to give life, and the fact that the earth is considered female (Shiva, 1993). Thus this gives them a better understanding of nature and how to coexist in harmony. Val Plumwood, an ecofeminist believe, that feminism should go hand in hand with environmentalism as both women and the environment are under the same oppression. Another feminist argues that the problem is in trying to justify this kind of oppression thus allowing such subordination. When considering environmental ethics and policies, the domination over women and nature is a critical issue that requires attention. Economics and Ecology Economics and ecology usually appear as counter forces. Economy involves trying to allocate the limited resources while ecology looks out to protect these resources. The ever growing human population has placed great pressure on nature and thus their distribution is highly competitive. Market forces have added more pressure to natural resources and their exploitation. Rapid growth of industries has contributed to environmental deterioration. The cost-benefit considers questions like; if nuclear power makes electricity cheaper, should this field be ventured? What is the cost of preserving a forest compared to the cost of exporting timber? These raise challenges when setting up policies on the environment because of the question of cost versus the benefit of environmental ethics. Technology Technology has had a huge impact on human life as well as on the environment. The effects of technology are both beneficial and adverse. The medical, agricultural, communication and energy industries rely heavily on technology to better human life. Technology has the power to destroy nature as well as replenish it. The technological advances that are most potentially harmful include nuclear technology that is able to annihilate nature and biotechnology which has the potential to alter the natural species boundaries. Since all technologies come with potential risks along with their benefits, ethical consideration must be made with regards to the environment. Conclusion  In studying environmental ethics, the first thing is to ask the question ‘what should be done about the current environmental situation and how should it be done? ’ The other consideration is the importance of individual natural resources and how much effort and cost we should dedicate to protecting such. This should be based on facts and not feelings, like and dislikes. It is important that policies be based on an integrated system that has in mind all the components of nature, as well as involvement of the government, institutions and other countries.

Declining Efficiency of Investment :: essays papers

Declining Efficiency of Investment It may be useful to put the discussion of performance constraints of the Thai economy briefly in perspective. Over the past 2 decades, the Thai economy has been one of the best performing economies in the world, characterized by sustained high growth rates, averaging 10.3% 1985-90, and 8% in the years prior to the crisis (1990-96). This growth was accompanied by a dramatic decline in the incidence of absolute poverty, from 57% in 1962 to 14% in 1992, with per capita income increasing from $700 per annum in the late 1960s, to $2,700 in 1996. At the same time, rapid growth was accompanied by environmental degradation, resource depletion, and an increasingly unequal distribution of income and wealth. However, on balance a remarkable record of development. During this period of rapid growth and economic transformation, Thailand became increasingly integrated into the world economy through trade and investment flows, and production linkages. As the economy expanded rapidly and became more complex in structure, it posed more and new types of strains and challenges to economic management or â€Å"governance† systems at both the macro (i.e. public policy) and micro (enterprise) levels. As the relative role of the private sector increased in the economy, the importance of enterprise management and performance correspondingly increased. Looking more deeply at Thailand’s performance, manufactured exports grew by about 23% per year between 1980 and 1995, almost doubling during 1992-1995. However, in 1996 export growth fell practically to 0 per cent, with labor-intensive exports usually identified as the main culprit. Certain factors are generally cited as responsible fo r this abrupt and dramatic decline:  · External factors cited included the emergence of new competitors, with the coming on stream of new production facilities in lower income/lower wage countries such as China, Indochina, Philippines, further complicated by the30% devaluation of the Chinese yen in 1994;  · Domestic factors cited generally relate to rising wage rates and overvalued exchange rates. Domestic wage rates during 1991-95 rose about 11%, on average or about 5% increase in real wages per year, cited as the key factor in the slowdown in growth of labor intensive exports. The real effective exchange rate of the baht is estimated to have appreciated by about 15% during 1995-97, primarily because of the linkage to the US$, which appreciated against the yen. While the above factors suggest that Thailand was losing its edge in low cost, labor intensive exports, these are at best partial explanations for the overall decline in export performance.

The Kyoto Protocol Essay -- Environment USA Carbon Emissions Essays Pa

The Kyoto Protocol The Protocol: In December of 1997 the industrial nations of the world met in Kyoto, Japan to discuss a protocol that would require each nation to reduce their emission levels of greenhouse gases. On average the protocol required a 5.2% reduction on emission of greenhouse gases, mainly carbon-dioxide, in each signatory nation. 1 However some nations, like the U.S. who were obligated to reduce emissions by 7% of their 1990 levels by 2012, were required to reduce emission levels more or less than the average of 5.2% based on the current levels the nation emits. By March 16, 1997 the protocol was opened for signature and the first nations to sign were Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Maldives, Western Samoa, Switzerland and St. Lucia. Today 84 nations have signed the protocol and 104 have ratified it, accepted it, approved it, or come to an accession. 2 Although the United States under the Clinton Administration did originally sign the protocol; under the Bush Administration, in March of 2001, the U.S officially backed out of the Kyoto Protocol.3 According to President Bush the Kyoto Protocol "makes no economic sense, it makes no common sense." 4 Economically he was worried about the effects of the California energy crisis along with the threat of a recession. 5 In addition President Bush rejected the Kyoto Protocol because of its failure to include developing countries like China which is the second largest producer of greenhouse gases. 6 However, other nations of the world and our own nation saw it as "a moral lapse by the world's biggest polluter." 7 The United States, which only has 4% of the world's population, creates 25% of the pollution. 8 In an article written for the Seattle Times, Eric Sorensen f... ...February 9, 2003) 14. Shogren, Elizabeth. "Bush Pushes to Cut U.S. Greenhouse Emissions." June 10, 2001. Los Angeles Times. http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com (accessed February 9, 2003) 15. Pianin, Eric. "Bush Offers No Alternative to Kyoto Treaty." Washington Post. http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com (accessed February 9, 2003) 16. Shogren, Elizabeth. "Bush Pushes to Cut U.S. Greenhouse Emissions." June 10, 2001. Los Angeles Times. http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com (accessed February 9, 2003) 17. Brodeur, Nicole. "City Thinks Global, Skips Things Local." July 24, 2001. Seattle Times. http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com (accessed February 9, 2003) 18. Forgrave, Reid. "Resolution Sent to Council for Global-Warming Action." July 20,2001. Seattle Times. http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com (accessed February 9, 2003)

The 2050 Year

Heading for 2050 We've all had at least once in life thought that we wonder how the future will look like? How will we be over 40 years? How will our planet look like? Or just how it will be tomorrow? These are questions which, in my opinion, we grind every day. Futurologists prepare us for what seems to be 2050, saying it would be totally different in all fields, from entertainment to technology, what we find at the moment on our planet. First, classic TV channels through completely disappear, their place being taken by Internet, which we will have access all around the house (mirrors, tables, pictures, all with touch screen). The future seems a little too SF for the prezent that we live, but if we think about where they got all the science right now and where it is going, we can use in the future, things which are not imaginable today. The future of humanity will be a very human liking, because in future we will not have to do all the hard work, for which today we work more than 40 hours per week, but this will be done by robots. We will have robots that will clean, make food, will plant flowers, but also those intelligent robots will take over the role of great engineers, so that construction can be achieved more easily, accurately and much smaller errors and less. They will take a large part of our daily tasks, and we will have much more free time for fun, relaxation, travel and many other interesting things. Of course all this will be different from what exists today. We can travel in space, to go on a vacation on a exotic planet , or simply a cruise we will go into space to see the beauty of the galaxies, as we go by boat in the Caribbean today. Perhaps in those days we can even travel in time to go see a play that it is authored by Shakespeare himself when his own songs debut on a theater in the UK, or maybe we want to take part in the most important events in human history. Future technology will give us the chance to reduce the number of accidents and congestion on major arteries that form in the city. We will travel with vehicles powered using renewable energy that will help us to rise from the ground and use highways and roads on different levels (in height), to leave the ground as a destination for edestrians only, without having to ruin the beauty of nature, and many ecosystems with the construction of highways that connect major cities . Also classic trains that we know will be replaced with other transportation vehicles, which can reach a speed huge for our days, reaching their destination faster and traveling long distances. Spacecraft will serve today's aircraft, and connects the major cities what are located on d ifferent planets. Teleportation will certainly play a role as important in travel to various destinations as other means of transport, teleport different objects, or even people, of course, being the fastest means of transport, will be the most expensive. Pollution problem will be a thing of the past, or at least of atmospheric air pollution because radiation from radioactive waste will only disappear in a few thousand years, as is the case of Chernobyl. Greenland ice caps will melt not at a fast pace, maybe even boots from the pole mass will return to normal and we will not worry about increasing sea levels. The problem of global warming was solved, hurricane risk decreases, the climate will return to normal, and fear of other natural disasters will be the past. Contact with extraterrestrial civilizations will bring a touch of humanity, because we realize that we are not alone in the universe and that will need to take into account the opinions of others. But the biggest advantage is that we can assimilate the technology they have available and we learn things we could not discover themselves, can even combine our technologies with the hope that we will discover the answers to questions we grind for centuries. Medicine, one of the most important science that directly concerns each of us, will be among the most advanced of the existing fields. We will get the best equipment in a view to improving our recovery, medical technology will be very advanced , as organ transplants between people will not gonna happen, so will be replaced diseased organs with mechanical organs which take the place of human. All these things will lead to a decrease of mortality. Due to the increasing number of people on Earth we will have some of us to leave this planet and begin to colonize different planets similar to Earth. The discovery of planets like our Earth will open the horizons to worlds unknown to us, will help us spread the race and to make ourselves known in the universe. We prepare for the future seems to be exactly what we need, but until we get there we still have 40 years of hard work, during which time we hope that all things work perfectly. Our evolution is to develop technologies that we present can zoom in or out of answers that we do not have but one living and dreams of 2050.

Science & technology in Jamaica essays

Science & technology in Jamaica essays Since the Industrial Revolution, science and technology (S When we talk about science we are referring to, in broadest terms, systematized knowledge in any field. There are different branches of science, each established to support and satisfy its own area. Technology now, refers to the processes by which human beings fashion tools, machines and systems to increase their control of the material environment. Technology often emerges out of everyday activities rather than from science. However in the past century, technology has become more science based. Just like science, technology has different branches or aspects that need to be assessed if we are to properly evaluate Jamaicas position. Technics, production technology, consumption technology, organizational technology, technological capability and social structure are the categories into which technology is divided. Technics refers to the physical products and systems of human making. Production technology refers to the materials, equipment, processes and activities associated wi th technology. Consumption technology is the methods, products, systems and activities through which we satisfy our needs. Organizational technology is the organization or social relations of production associated with particular production and consumption technologies. The skills, knowledge and experience of local personnel, organized in institutions which effectively deploy their work, and backed by adequate material resources and support services is seen as technological capability. Lastly social structure is the total effect of technology on material and social...

Use these 10 tools to figure out your ideal career

Use these 10 tools to figure out your ideal career If you’re one of those people who always knew what you were destined to do for your career, from fresh-faced recent grad to wise retiree, that’s amazing! You are already killing it, plan-wise. But chances are you’re more like the rest of us, and are less than 100% sure of what you want to do with your career. At that point, it takes a little more thinking, prodding, and questioning before you can move on to the career plan. Or maybe you’ve already gone down one path, and either don’t like it or need a change. Whatever the case may be, there are lots of great tools out there you can use to figure out what you should be doing with your career. You’ve probably seen those Buzzfeed-style quizzes all over the place, promising to tell you your age, weight, and best life choices based on the pizza toppings you choose. I’m not here to say those aren’t accurate, but if you truly want to figure out what you want to do with your life, it pa ys to dig a little deeper. Luckily, there are some easy, accessible (and dare I say â€Å"fun†?) online tests and surveys that help you channel your personality and your strengths into a job that matches your greatness.Why do personality and aptitude tests work?Personality tests aren’t always career-related, but they can help you get a baseline handle on who you are, what you like, and what circumstances can help you thrive (or, alternatively, what your biggest challenges might be). All of these things are crucial for helping you figure out a long-term path. They also support a fundamental truth about professional life: you can have all the education and skills necessary to do a job, but whether you do it well- and whether it is fulfilling for you- is largely due to your personality. Your personality is often the forgotten part of the job hunt, lost in the shuffle with resume, cover letter, and interview prep. Yet it’s a major component of who you are, and who y ou’d be on the job.Similarly, aptitude tests may help you define skill sets you didn’t realize you had, or didn’t know that you should emphasize. A little self-knowledge can go a long way, especially when it comes to finding a career path that works for you in the long run.Let’s look at a few of the assessments out there.The Color QuizBelieve it or not, your favorite colors can show what careers might be right for you. In this simple, five-minute quiz, your answers are analyzed and returned as potential career matches.Cost: Free to use and get your results.The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) AssessmentThis is the classic personality test, used in many different professional and personal contexts to help people become more self-aware and make decisions based on their personal strength areas. It’s a questionnaire (which you can fill out either online or on paper) designed to assess how you see the world in four different areas: directing and recei ving energy (extroverted vs. introverted); taking in information (sensing vs. intuitive); making decisions (thinking vs. feeling); and approaching the outside world (judging vs. perceiving). It reveals insights about how you form and approach relationships, as well as how you communicate- both factors that can help determine whether you become, say, a lab technician versus a stand-up comedian.Cost: Insights don’t always come for free. The official test is $49.95, but there are also free versions available online as well. As part of the cost, you receive a detailed report analyzing your personality type and communication styles.Truity TypeFinder TestsTruity bases their personality assessments on the 16 different types originally outlined by Isabel Briggs Myers (whose name should sound familiar if you just read about the MBTI). They offer a general personality test (the TypeFinder Personality Test), but also a professionally-focused one (the TypeFinder for the Workplace). There are also smaller, targeted personality quizzes available on the site.Cost: The general TypeFinder assessments (both personality and professional) are $29 apiece, but you can take the shorter personality quizzes on the site for free.PymetricsIf games are more your speed than filling out straight-up questionnaires, then Pymetrics might be a more fun way for you to learn more about your personal and professional styles. The Pymetrics method uses game design to help limit anxiety and biases that might be present in more traditional quizzes and surveys, allowing people to relax and make honest choices instead of overthinking or trying to figure out how to â€Å"score high† on a standardized test. At the end of the process, the Pymetrics reports match job seekers with a subset of potential careers based on neuroscience and their algorithms. This new wave of personality assessment is used by schools and many different kinds of companies to assess potential applicants and recruits.C ost: It’s free to sign up and start playing the games, but there may be costs for detailed reporting and career matchmaking.The MAPP Career AssessmentThis assessment is a 22-minute â€Å"test† (flashback to those No. 2 pencils and scantron sheets!) that asks you 71 questions about your likes and dislikes to gauge your potential career interests. The focus is less on the â€Å"right† answer than on the instinctive one. This test bills itself as the â€Å"mapp† to your â€Å"true calling.† And unlike those old-school pencil-and-paper affairs, this can be done entirely online.Cost: It’s free to get started and take the test, but it costs $89.95-$149.95 to get detailed reports and potential job analysesSokanuSokanu takes your answers from a 20-minute quiz, and compares your interests, personality, and preferences to 100 different traits. At the end of the test, you’re matched to a subset of 800 different jobs. Rather than make general rec ommendations like â€Å"astronaut† or â€Å"ballet dancer,† this test prides itself on using deeper data metrics to make specific career recommendations.Cost: Totally free!My Next MoveThis is a very career-focused assessment put out by the U.S. Department of Labor. Also called the â€Å"O*Net Interest Profiler,† this test allows you to take your results and use them to search the U.S. government’s vast database of career information.Cost: This tool is free to use (well, probably funded by your tax dollars- but no additional cost in the meantime).Skills ProfilerIf you’re looking for something more solidly skills-based than personality-based, the U.S. Department of Labor’s other career assessment, the Skills Profiler tool, might be a better fit for you. Instead of taking a personality type and matching it with a job, it lets you input either your current skills to find a matching career, or a job type to see what kind of skills you’ll n eed for it. This can be a good way to see if that job you want to apply for is a good fit for the skills you already have, or if you’ll need to do some building in the meantime.Cost: This assessment is free to use.PathSourcePathSource is a little different- instead of telling you which jobs you should pursue based on your personality or interests, it helps you figure out what kind of job you’ll need to support your lifestyle. It’s an app that assesses your personality and career interests, and also lets you know whether that job in library science is likely to support your caviar dreams. Or, more importantly, whether you’ll be able to pay back the student loans you accumulated in pursuit of your goals.Cost: The app is free to download from the Apple or Google app stores.So how do I use these results in my job hunt?Think of this test-taking as pre-work. You won’t be rattling off your MBTI results on your resume or dropping hints in the interview tha t your love of the color forest green makes you perfect for this job as a firefighter. These are merely in the interest of understanding yourself better, and giving you potential starting points (or eventual goals) that you can use to target your job search or align your goals.If you end up in a job or career that just doesn’t fit who you are, it’s likely that you’ll end up right back at this same place- trying to figure out what does make you tick, and how you can turn that into a more fulfilling job and career. Knowing what types of environments you thrive in, how you work with others, and how you approach the world in general can be invaluable information as you figure out which opportunities to pursue, and it’s an area that you can only access if you make the commitment to understand yourself better.Don’t forget, your resume is the next important step! You can also download free templates from our Resume Library to get started on your resume cr eation.

Who Popularized the term Talented Tenth

Who Popularized the term 'Talented Tenth'   How was the term Talented Tenth popularized?   Despite social inequalities and Jim Crow Era laws that became a way of life for African-Americans in the South after the Reconstruction period, a small group of African-Americans were forging ahead by establishing businesses and becoming educated. A debate began amongst African-American intellectuals concerning the best way for African-American communities to survive racism and social injustice in the United States. In 1903, sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist W.E.B. Du Bois responded through his essay The Talented Tenth. In the essay, Du Bois argued: The Negro race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, then, among Negroes must first of all deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the problem of developing the Best of this race that they may guide the Mass away from the contamination and death of the Worst.† With the publication of this essay, the term â€Å"Talented Tenth† became popularized. It was not Du Bois who first developed the term. The concept of the Talented Tenth was developed by the American Baptist Home Mission Society in 1896.   The American Baptist Home Mission Society was an organization comprised of Northern white philanthropists such as John D. Rockefeller. The purpose of the group was to help establish African-American colleges in the South to train educators and other professionals. Booker T. Washington also referred to the term â€Å"Talented Tenth† in 1903. Washington edited The Negro Problem, a collection of essays written by other African-American leaders in support of Washington’s position. Washington wrote: The Negro race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, then, among Negroes must first of all deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the problem of developing the Best of this race that they may guide the Mass away from the contamination and death of the Worst, in their own and other races. Yet Du Bois defined the term, â€Å"Talented Tenth† to argue that one out of 10 African-American men could become leaders in the United States and the world if they pursued education, published books and advocated for social change in society. Du Bois believed that African-Americans really needed to pursue a traditional education versus the industrial education that Washington consistently promoted. Du Bois argued in his essay: â€Å"Men we shall have only as we make manhood the object of the work of the schools - intelligence, broad sympathy, knowledge of the world that was and is, and of the relation of men to it - this is the curriculum of that Higher Education which must underlie true life. On this foundation we may build bread winning, skill of hand and quickness of brain, with never a fear lest the child and man mistake the means of living for the object of life.† Who were examples of the Talented Tenth? Perhaps two of the greatest examples of the Talented Tenth were Du Bois and Washington. However, there were other examples: The National Business League, established by Washington brought together African-American businessowners across the United States. The American Negro Academy, the first organization in the United States with the purpose of promoting African-American scholarship. Founded in 1897, the use of The American Negro Academy to promote the academic achievements of African-Americans in areas such as higher education, arts, and science.The National Association of Colored Women (NACW). Established in 1986 by educated African-American women, the purpose of the NACW was to fight sexism, racism, and social injustice.The Niagara Movement. Developed by Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter in 1905, the Niagara Movement led the way for the NAACP to be established.

Separation of powers in Malaysia and United Kingdom Essay

Separation of powers in Malaysia and United Kingdom - Essay Example House of Lords mainly consists of minorities of the hereditary peers which mainly are life members appointed by Crown and Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England. Under the constitutional reforms of 2005, Lords of Appeal in ordinary who have been members of the House of Lords will no longer be entitled to further sit in the Lords. The judiciary includes the judges in the courts of law and those holding judicial offices in tribunals and the magistrates who work in the magistrate’s courts. Senior appointments to the judiciary are appointed by the Crown (Trone 312). The function of the judiciary is to interpret the legislation in line with the intention of the parliament and develop the common law. Under the constitution, the judges are subordinate to parliament and have no right to challenge the legislation of parliament like the validity of Acts of parliament. Judges are barred from vying for elective positions under the House of Commons disqualification act of 1975. T he Constitutional reforms act of 2005 criticized the work of the House of Lords chancellor sine he could appoint the judges and played a central political role in the government. Chancellor presided the House of Lords as the speaker therefore playing a legislative role. The roles were criticized since they contravened the doctrine of separation of powers by concentrating the executive, judiciary and parliamentary functions in one person. In the case of McGonnell V. United Kingdom (2000) the European court of human rights ruled that the right of fair trial was violated by participation of the Deputy Bailiff who was both a member of Court and member of the legislature at the same time. This saw the reformation of the office of the Lord Chancellor (Shar 45). Malaysia The government structure of... The paper tells that under the British constitution, there is no strict separation of powers but there is a system of check and balances which ensure the powers are not abused. The fundamental purpose of the doctrine of separation of powers is to ensure powers are not abused and the civil rights and liberties of the citizens are protected. Under a written constitution, the powers are distributed to the various institutions will be strictly defined. In United Kingdom, Judges in the high courts exercise their independence in according to Act of settlement 1700 which protects their tenure in office and guards their independence from executive and legislative influence. The judges enjoy immunity from legal proceedings in their functions even if they make defamatory statements during the court proceedings. In Malaysia, the judges do not exercise their judicial independence since they are appointed by the executive. The right to exercise their judicial powers in delivering the judgments ha s been limited by the constitution. Both countries have two levels of government. The separation of powers is clear in United Kingdom though it may be entrenched in the constitution. The separation of powers ensures each organ of government does not abuse its powers. In Malaysia, there is no separation of powers since executive is more powerful than the other arms of the government. The judicial independence and powers are limited by the constitution in Malaysia. In Malaysia, the parliament has been used to rubber stamp the decisions of the executive since the Prime Minister comes from the party with majority members in parliament.

Challenges in recovery of mental health client Essay

Challenges in recovery of mental health client - Essay Example The depiction in the text is protected and the inferences are not aimed at anyone whatsoever. The paper is a reflection of study on the addictions in the country. The victim of the study is fictitious and used based on education with reference to drug abuse. Addictions are resultant to the use of substance initially pleasurable but the continued use becomes obsessive and hampers with ordinary life errands like work and health or relationships. When out of control, it affects the people around you directly or indirectly (Taite & Scharff, 2013, 25). Ms. M has been in the country for 30 years as an illegal immigrant after getting into the country through the Mexican border with the aim of making a good life in the land of opportunities. This client is 46 years of age, and Latina of descent. She started working as a bartender at a local bar near her residence before she had become an addict of the substances. She is a mother of two children one who died from an OD and the other daughter is stable and working for the government and isolated herself from the habits of her mother. She blames the mother for the death of her sister. Her drug abuse led her into debt and bad choices where she lost her home and a place to leave (Rassool, & Gafoor, 2007). She has been struggling in the streets of New York moving from shelter to shelter. She no longer works and has to scavenge for a drug handout from the dealers who give her under the regulations (Boyd, 2007). Ms. M came to the center to apply for rehabilitation after opting to find refuge to the prevalent case of drug abuse in the life she leads. MS. M is began to express her thought in the life she leads was not very sustaining as pertains to the age she was now. Her social life has been dysfunctional since she started to consume many different drugs with the aim of getting high. She gradually graduated from the simple marijuana to cocaine and went into the use of crystal meth. The abuse of drugs has made Ms. M looks older than actually is since the drugs are taking most of her money and little goes into her health. She does not have any medical insurance. She asserts that she is determined to get help ad has enrolled in a local hospital after being rejected severally. Her emotional detachment from her daughter who is still alive does not seem to bother her since she says she does not want to hurt herself emotionally (Dossey & Keegan, 2009). She has the urge to reconnect but the daughter has not yet agreed to come to terms with the mother. The greatest obstacle M faces are the change in the lifestyle she is used to, now she lives with a dealer who is sometimes the boyfriend and uses the drugs as an advantage to having her do his bid. At times, she is forced to take the drugs since they are flaunted in front of her. She asserts that her devotion is tested by the social circle she dwells (Peabody, 2013). She says that the worst and saddening time of her life was when she would give her body to get a do se of the drug and that would always lead to her getting raped by the dealers. Ms. M has been struggling with the addiction from abuse of drugs and specifically crystal meth, which she was hooked on recently. She has the courage to overcome the drug abuse and the social circles that make her life miserable. The use of crystal meth was the last option she had after her struggle with cash proved stronger. Present issues M has been using the drug for more than 20 years where she had drug

Strategic financial management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Strategic financial management - Essay Example ater than zero and thus positive and reject a project with a net present value that is less than zero, that is, negative net present value projects should be rejected. (Ross et al., 2002). The latter case is in a situation where only one project is being evaluated. In the event were the company is evaluating a number of projects, for which only one will be selected, the decision criteria is to first of all discard all projects with negative net present values and then select the project with the highest net present value among the positive NPV projects. (Ross et al., 2002; Myers and Brealey, 2002). It measures the change in the net worth of the firm due to the project (Cheng et al., 1994). NPV can also be derived from â€Å"discounting the expected future payoff by the rate of returns offered by comparable investment alternatives† (Richard and Bill, 2003). The vital stage of calculating NPV is to estimate the opportunity cost of capital (discounted rate) properly in order to discount future cash flow that forecasted of investment project (Brealey, Myers and Marcus, 2007). Under this method, every project with a positive NPV can be accepted to invest (Frank, 1999). NPV is a superior method of investment appraisal in theory, and recent study approved that it the most preferred tool in practices in management perspectives (Patricia and Glenn’s, 2002). This could because of its major advantages in consideration of time value of cash flows. However, Michael (2004) indicated a weakness in application of NPV, managers face more difficult practical issues—such as the estimation and timing of cash flows. This adjustment could impact on likelihood of project acceptance. Additionally, NPV may fail as the method primary assumes there is no restriction on the amount of company’s investment, yet in practice there is a certain constraint on company’s investment budget, which depends on its size (Frank, 1999). A simple mathematical illustration of the net present value

Writer's choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Writer's choice - Essay Example The continuous conflict between these two nations has actually been built on social injustice against the Palestine, economic apartheid, and political oppression imposed on them by the Jews. The root of the conflict can be traced back to the invasion of the Palestine by the Zionists in 1800s and the gradual but steady support the Israeli community has been gaining from their fellow American Jews. The pressure on the Palestine on various sovereignty issues has been growing since 1800s owing to the effects of holocaust and the subsequent mass immigration of Jews to Middle East and US. The Scholarly books offered over this issue all point fingers on the historical injustice that Israel has always done against the Muslim dominated Palestine as the world watches and United States’ open complacency on the issue. The conflict runs through ideologies and community affiliation that disregards the religious inclination. This explains why US supports the Jewish Israeli Who profess Judaism rather than the Muslim and Christian Palestine. The US has economic interests in Israel and this includes financial support on various social, economic, and political policies. On the other hand, the world especially the Arab states have keenly been following the actions of US towards the two nations’ conflict resolution. It has therefore been a delicate balance for the US since this has serious diplomatic challenges and its entire economy. Mark Green, ed., Persecution, Privilege & Power: Reconsidering the Zionist Narrative in American Life, Thirty Essential Articles on the Most Pressing Issue of our Time (2007): Read carefully the Book Description/About Mark Green, click on TV Interviews and watch the Jeff Blankfort (#1 and #2) short video clips at:

Commodity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Commodity - Essay Example The most important oil producing nation in the whole world is Saudi Arabia. It is the biggest oil producing country of the world. In the year 2011, it has supplied 12.8% of global oil (Chakarova, 3). The country has got a oil reserve of 266 billion barrels (Chakarova, 3). Not only Saudi Arabia but Iran is also becoming a world leader in the crude oil supply. Iran is in a state of rapid development because of its oil reserves. Strait of Hormuz, through which 20% of world oil is supplied, is under the control of Iran. If this passage is blocked, then it would be a great problem for the whole world. As a result of which the oil prices will definitely rise. This would also require new path of delivery of oil to other countries. However, there are other countries in the middle-east which has substantial capacity of oil production. But, there are conflicts at the moment between those countries in the middle-east. This is a scary sign for the world because any conflict between these countri es would result in huge losses which the other remaining nations of the world would have to suffer. Demand of Oil in international market There is huge demand of oil in the whole world. In this modern era of rapid industrialization, it is very hard to think of running any industry without oil. However, the supply is very less as compared to the huge demand all over the world. Each year this demand is growing leaps and bounds but it is a very critical issue now to think of where from this demand be met. In the year 2004, the OECD countries consumed 48.8 mmbpd and it was 5.2% more than in the year 2003 (Cordsman and Al-Rodhan, 31). This is just a number showing the horrific nature of demand in crude oil in the world nine years ago. But the situation today is even more horrifying. It has also been seen that due to the huge industrialization process in the upcoming economies like India and China, the demand has risen even more in the past few years. The rapid development process in thes e two Asian countries would surely increase the demand as they themselves do not have any natural source of oil. All they can do is that they can import the crude oil from the middle-east countries. A graphical data is presented below showing the demand of oil based on economic growth from 2001-2025 (million barrels per day) (Cordsman and Al-Rodhan, 34). 2001 2002 2010 2015 2020 2025 LG 78 78.20 98.60 110.00 120.60 132.30 R 78 78.20 93.60 103.20 111.00 119.20 HG 78 78.20 91.10 97.20 102.30 107.70 (Source: Cordsman and Al-Rodhan, 34) Note: LG-low-growth, R- reference case, HG- high growth case. Price of oil in international market Due to the low supply, the demand for the crude oil has increased a lot in the past few years which in turn has raised the price of crude oil in the global market considerably. The developing economies of the world like India, China, etc., they are on the verge of development. As a result they are in huge demand of crude oil for their rapid industrial growt h. They need huge supply of crude oil which has made the price of oil go high in the international market. And it’s not only the price of crude oil, but the different levels of duties, processing cost, all these add up to a level which makes it a nightmare for the consumers in this era. The prices of petrol, diesel, LPG going high on a daily basis are the consequences of this. Here is a list showing the annual

Writer's choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Writer's choice - Essay Example The continuous conflict between these two nations has actually been built on social injustice against the Palestine, economic apartheid, and political oppression imposed on them by the Jews. The root of the conflict can be traced back to the invasion of the Palestine by the Zionists in 1800s and the gradual but steady support the Israeli community has been gaining from their fellow American Jews. The pressure on the Palestine on various sovereignty issues has been growing since 1800s owing to the effects of holocaust and the subsequent mass immigration of Jews to Middle East and US. The Scholarly books offered over this issue all point fingers on the historical injustice that Israel has always done against the Muslim dominated Palestine as the world watches and United States’ open complacency on the issue. The conflict runs through ideologies and community affiliation that disregards the religious inclination. This explains why US supports the Jewish Israeli Who profess Judaism rather than the Muslim and Christian Palestine. The US has economic interests in Israel and this includes financial support on various social, economic, and political policies. On the other hand, the world especially the Arab states have keenly been following the actions of US towards the two nations’ conflict resolution. It has therefore been a delicate balance for the US since this has serious diplomatic challenges and its entire economy. Mark Green, ed., Persecution, Privilege & Power: Reconsidering the Zionist Narrative in American Life, Thirty Essential Articles on the Most Pressing Issue of our Time (2007): Read carefully the Book Description/About Mark Green, click on TV Interviews and watch the Jeff Blankfort (#1 and #2) short video clips at:

Robinson Crusoe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Robinson Crusoe - Essay Example Daniel Defoe had done a good job to bring Robinson to the wilderness of deserted island by a shipwreck, which was essential for the rebuilding of his own future. It was the only event which was a turning point in the life of Robinson Crusoe. It was the ending of his otherwise prolonged journey. The moments he spent there were teaching him new lessons. Slowly he recognized the environs, the features, the objects which were offered to him. In his own words, â€Å"the total nature itself fetch him essentials for his life†. The fear of solitude surrounded him there. This led to the construction of his shelter. It was necessary for him to become self sufficient in every matters like food, drink, animal husbandry, and plantations. When he noticed the miraculous growth of the corns he realized that these are the results of fate ,"for it was the work of Providence as to me, that should order or appoint, that the ten or twelve grains of corn should remain unspoiled, as if it had been d ropped down from Heaven" ( Defoe, 79). Man has such a particular nature to develop special qualities for the improvement in a totally alien surroundings. Defoe filled his hero with the power and strength. For this he uses his own religious believes also. It is Crusoe’s Christianity that helps him to attain richness both spiritually and financially. In that way he became a real colonizer. Thus Defoe represents the island as a symbol of the outside world. All the time Crusoe was trying to recreate his past life. There was surely a conflict arises in the mind of Crusoe, a conflict that of a civilized man and unsophisticated circumstances. Every actions of the hero were that of a civilized man. He learnt to meet all the necessities from the neighboring materials itself. The materials and the nature itself generated ideas in the mind of the hero. These ideas can be treated as intuitions or insights the primitive man was

An argument in favor of abortion supporting a womans right to freedom Essay Example for Free

An argument in favor of abortion supporting a womans right to freedom Essay Is there ever a case, when one persons religious preference should be allowed to encroach on another person’s right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness? Today many Americans justify their intrusion by siting Articles and Amendments to the Constitution of the United States.   In particular, they speak of the freedom of speech, religion, the right to bear arms, etc.   It seems as though the freedoms are only valuable when everyone shares the same beliefs, morals, and values.   But are these freedoms also guaranteed for those whose values may not be the same as the majority?   As Americans is it not possible to differ and hold different beliefs in pursuit of liberty?   What makes one persons beliefs more valuable under the constitution than another person? A lot of people do not support abortion because they believe it is killing baby. When most abortions occur, which in the first trimester â€Å"†¦a cluster of cells or a less than half ounce fetus is not anywhere close to a definition of an actual baby.† (4) Scientists use the term fetus and not a baby because a baby â€Å"†¦could be born and survive outside the mother’s womb†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (4) and a fetus could not. A fetus is nowhere near ready to live outside the mothers womb and â€Å" There is no real functioning brain, therefore no real humanity.† (4) So in reality abortions do not terminate babies, they terminate a fetus that could not survive outside the mother’s womb. Another reason people are not for abortion is that of religious beliefs. Some believe that terminating any form of life in the mother’s womb is wrong no matter the reason and â€Å"Those religiously opposed to abortion in the first two trimesters are free not to have them.†(9) Just because abortion is legal does not mean people are going to be forced to go out and participate in them. Abortion being legal does not impose on anyone’s rights or make anyone do anything they do not want to do. Therefore, if abortion goes against someone’s religious beliefs they are free not to go and get one. People who do not want abortion legalized talk about how it goes against their religion but what about the religion of the woman partaking in the abortion? Not everyone has the same beliefs or sees things the same as others. By trying to make abortion illegal it infringes on citizens rights. If â€Å"†¦my brothers and sisters in the United Church of Christ, who do not see the bible they way you see it, are free to make their own choices†¦ isn’t that freedom of religion too?† (9) People cannot talk about how abortion imposes on the pro-choices religion without talking about the religious freedom of the woman undergoing the procedure. If a woman’s beliefs tell her to do what is best for her The last topic is how making abortion illegal will take away a woman’s right by forcing her to stay pregnant. There are various reasons why a woman chooses to have an abortion. Whether it is because the woman is not ready for kids emotionally or financially, the baby was produced by rape or incest, or she simply just may not want kids and etc.   For people who are pro-choice â€Å"†¦ If your side ever wins, then my daughter and her daughter will be forced to stay pregnant, when their life circumstances†¦ would be much better served if they could safely terminate the fetus†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (7) So for people out there who are wanting abortion to illegal, in a sense, they want a woman to be forced to be pregnant even if that is not what is best for the woman. If abortion stays legal â€Å" we haven’t forced your daughter or her daughter after her, to do anything against their will.† (7) By keeping abortion legal no ones rights will be infringed on and no on e is forced to do anything they do not want to do. The same cannot be said if abortion was made illegal. In conclusion, abortions do not terminate babies it terminates fetuses. If abortion goes against someone’s religious beliefs they are free not to have them but do not forget about the religious freedom of the woman undergoing the abortion. People who do not support abortion will never be forced to do something against their will whether its legal or illegal but making abortion illegal will force a woman to stay pregnant against their will. These were just a few reasons why I think abortion should stay legal.

The Analysis And Design Of Work

The Analysis And Design Of Work The first section of this chapter discusses the analysis of work process within a given work unit. Having provided an understanding of the broader context of jobs, the chapter discusses the need for and usefulness of both job analysis and the techniques for performing job analysis. Finally, the chapter concludes by presenting the various approaches to job design to provide managers with an understanding of the costs and benefits of emphasizing different characteristics of jobs when designing or redesigning them. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: Analyze a work-flow process, identifying the output, activities, and inputs in the production of a product or service. Understand the importance of job analysis in strategic and human resource management. Choose the right job-analysis technique for a variety of human resource activities. Identify the tasks performed and the skills required in a given job. Understand the different approaches to job design. Comprehend the trade-offs among the various approaches to designing jobs. Extended Chapter Outline Note: Key terms appear in boldface and are listed in the Chapter Vocabulary section. Opening Vignette: Teams Levis: A Poor Fit? Like many corporations attempted in the 1990s, Levis tried to mimic the success of Chryslers team-based organizational structure. Unfortunately, the team-based structure did not materialize at Levis. Efficiency of pants produced dropped 30% as a result of the team structure, as well as labor and overhead increasing by 25%. Overall, the cost of production increased from $5 a pair of pants to $7.50. Introduction-Designing the work to be performed is one of the first tasks of strategy implementation discussed in Chapter 2. The way a firm competes can have a profound impact on the way tasks are organized, and the way the tasks are designed may provide the company with a competitive advantage. Also, the way jobs are designed can, in fact, affect company work-unit performance. There is no one best way to design jobs and structure organizations. The organization needs to create a fit between its environment, its competitive strategy and philosophy on the one hand, with its job and organizational design on the other. Job analysis and job design are interrelated. Work-Flow Analysis and Organizational Structure (Work-flow analysis, analyzing work outputs, processes, and inputs; see text Figure 4.1 and TM 4.1) Work-flow Analysis The Work-flow process is useful because it provides a means for the managers to understand all the tasks required to produce a high-quality product as well as the skills necessary to perform those tasks. Analyzing Work Outputs Work outputs are products of, or services provided by, a work unit. Example: A work output for GM is a new Buick off the assembly line; a work output for Gordon Landscaping Company is a mowed lawn. Once outputs have been identified, it is necessary to specify the standards for the quantity or quality of these outputs. ProMES (productivity measurement and evaluation system) is a productivity improvement technique that focuses attention on both identifying work-unit outputs and specifying levels of required performance for different levels of efficiency. Analyzing Work Processes Work processes are the activities that members of a work unit engage in to produce a given output. Example: Work processes needed to produce an automobile include assembly, painting, and so forth. Every process consists of operating procedures that specify how things should be done to develop the product or service. Analyzing Work Inputs Work inputs are the ingredients that go into the work processes and can be broken down into three categories (text Figure 4.1). Raw materials consist of the materials, data, and informa ­tion that will be converted into the work units products. Equipment refers to the technology, machinery, facilities, and systems necessary to transform the raw materials into the product or service. Example: Raw materials for the assembly of automobiles include various parts (steering wheels, tires, door panels, etc.) and equipment used, including robotic welding machines. Human skills refer to the workers knowledge, skills, abil ­ities, and efforts necessary to perform the tasks. Organizational structure provides a cross-sectional overview of the static relationship between individuals and units that create the outputs. Two of the most important dimensions of structure are centralization and departmentation. Centralization is the degree to which authority resides at the top of the organizational chart. Departmentation refers to the degree to which work units are grouped based upon functional similarity of work flow. Two types of Structural Configuration of organizational structure tend to emerge in organizations. A functional structure (See Fig. 4.2 and TM 4.2 in text) employs a functional departmentation scheme with high levels of centralization. Functional structures are very efficient. However, they tend to be inflexible and insensitive to subtle differences across products, regions, or clients A divisional structure (see Figures 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 in the text and TM 4.3, 4.4, 4.5) employs a workflow departmentation and low levels of centralization. Because of their work-flow focus, their semi-autonomous nature, and their proximity to a homogenous consumer base, divisional structures tend to be more flexible and innovative. However, they are not very efficient. Structure and the Nature of Jobs Jobs in functional structure need to be narrow, highly specialized, and people need to work alone. Jobs in divisional structures need to be more holistic, team-based structure with greater decision making authority. Job analysis is the process of getting detailed information about jobs. The Importance of Job Analysis to HR Managers Job analysis has been called the building block of everything that the personnel department does. Some of the human resource activities that use jobà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœanalysis information include selection, performance appraisal, training and development, job evaluation, career planning, work redesign, and human resource planning. The Importance of Job Analysis to Line Managers Managers must have detailed information about all the jobs in their work group to understand the work-flow process. Managers need to understand the job requirements to make intelligent hiring decisions. Since the manager is responsible for ensuring that each indi ­vidual is performing his or her job satisfactorily, the manager must clearly understand the tasks required in every job. Job Analysis Information A job description is a list of the tasks, duties, and responsibili ­ties (TDRs) that the job entails. (text Table 4.1) A related readings from Dushkins Annual Editions: Human Resources 99/00:  ¨HRs role will change. The question is how. HR 2008 by Floyd Kemske A job specification is a list of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that an individual must have to perform the job. Example: Job specifications for an employment assistant would include: (1) a fourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœyear college degree with major course work in human resources or an equivalent combination of experi ­ence, education, and training; (2) considerable knowledge of principles of employee selection and assignment of personnel; (3) the ability to express ideas clearly in written and oral communication; (4) the ability to independently plan and orga ­nize ones own activities. Competing by Meeting Stakeholders Needs: Staying Alive at the Graveyard Human beings are not nocturnal animals, therefore, working at night is not a natural activity for most people. Evidence suggests that people working the graveyard shift are more likely to develop problems like fatigue, depression, obesity, and also have been found to be more accident-prone and have higher absenteeism and turnover. Fortunately, research shows that people with certain characteristics, like being night owls and who exercise regularly, can respond easier to this type of disruptive behavior. Sources of Job Analysis Information In general, it will be useful for the manager to go to the job incumbents to get the most accurate information about what is actually done on the job. However, the incumbents might exaggerate their job duties. Managers should ask others familiar with the job, such as the supervisor, to look over any information received from the incumbents. Research has shown greater agreement between supervisors and subordinates when rating general job duties than when rating specific tasks. Also, incumbents may be the best source for accurate estimates of time spent on job tasks, but supervisors may be more accurate on the importance of job duties. Research is somewhat inconclusive about the relationship between the performance level of the job analyst and the job-analysis information he or she provides, but recent research has shown that effective and ineffective managers tend to give the same job-analysis ratings despite their performance level. Because of inconclusive research results on the influence of demographic and experience differences, it is best to take steps to ensure that the incumbent group responsible for job-analysis information represents a variety of gender, racial, and experience level categories. Competing Through High Performance Work Systems: Telework With the new millennium approaching, the trend of separating work life from home life may be a thing of the past. With the costs of office space combined with the drastically reduced prices of portable electronic computing and communication devices, a new trend may develop called telework (doing ones work away from a centrally located office). Telework programs can save up to $8000 per employee annually. The number of teleworkers is on the rise. Telework programs have advantages such as a productivity gain caused in part by flexibility that allowed people to work at their peak efficiency and partly by eliminating distractions. Telework programs also have some disadvantages such as employees feeling a hindrance of teamwork and some felt it was harder to balance home and work. Job Analysis Methods Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) The PAQ is a standardized jobà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœanalysis questionnaire containing 194 items representing work behaviors, work conditions, or job characteristics that are generalizable across a wide variety of jobs. The 194 items are organized into six sections, and the job analyst is asked to rate each item on six scales. A computer program generates a job report based on the ratings. Research has indicated that the PAQ measures 13 overall dimensions (text Table 4.2). Knowing the dimension scores provides some guidance regarding the types of abilities that are necessary to perform the job. One of the main problems with the PAQ is that it requires the reading level of a college graduate to complete the ques ­tionnaire. Task Analysis Inventory The task analysis inventory method refers to several different methods that focus on analyzing all the tasks performed in the focal job. It is not uncommon to have over 100 tasks for a job. The task inventoryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ËœCODAP method has SMEs generate a list of tasks and then the SMEs rate each task on various dimensions such as the time spent on the task, frequency of task performance, relative importance of task, and relative difficulty of the task. The task analysis method is different from the CODAP method since once the task list is developed, the SMEs are asked to identify the skills, abilities, and personal character ­istics required to perform each task Fleishman Job Analysis System (FJAS) This approach defines abilities as enduring attributes of indi ­viduals that account for differences in performance. The system is based on a taxonomy of 52 cognitive, psychomotor, physical, and sensory abilities that adequately represent all the dimensions relevant to work (see Table 4.3 in the text). The FJAS scales include behavioral benchmark examples of the different levels of the ability along a sevenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœpoint scale. SMEs indicate the point on the scale that best represents the level of that ability required in a certain job (Figure 4.6 and TM 4.3). Dynamic Elements of Job Analysis Although we tend to view jobs as static and stable, in fact, jobs tend to change and evolve over time. The job analysis process must also detect changes in the nature of jobs. Competing Through Globalization Box: Eliminating Sweatshops at Nike At the time when the Nike spokesperson, Michael Jordan, was bringing in over $10 billion, the workers of Indonesian plants were far from ideal. Labor practices like severe punishment for missed goals and mandatory overtime helped keep costs low and quality high. Consumers became increasingly aware of how their sneakers were actually being made, which led to boycotts and human rights groups getting involved. To end this problem, CEO Phillip Knight raised minimum worker age requirements, adopted safety and Health Standards and allowed HRM to monitor worker conditions in all foreign plants. Knight also invited competitors to do the same realizing that a failure to do so would result in a competitive disadvantage. Job design is the process of defining the way work will be performed and the tasks that will be required in a given job. Job redesign refers to changing the tasks or the way work is performed in an existing job. Jobs can also be characterized on different dimensions of job design (Table 4.4 in the text). Motivational Approach The motivational approach to job design focuses on the job characteristics that affect the psychological meaning and motivational potential and it views attitudinal variables as the most important outcomes of job design. The prescriptions of the motivational approach focus on increasing job complexity through job enlargement, job enrich ­ment, and the construction of jobs around sociotechnical systems. An example of the motivational approach is Herzbergs Two-Factor theory. A more complete model of how job design affects employee reactions is the Job Characteristics Model. Jobs can be described in terms of five characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. These five job characteristics determine the motivating potential of a job by affecting three psychological states: experienced meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results. When the core job characteristics are high, individuals will have a high level of internal work motivation, higher quantity and quality of work, and higher levels of job satisfaction. The positive effects require that the employees have adequate levels of satisfaction with the work environment, have the necessary ability to perform the job, and that they have a need to grow. There is some support for the idea that for those with high growth-need strength, job characteristics were more positively related to motivational outcomes than for those with low growth-need strength. Much of the work on job enlargement, job enrichment, and selfà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœmanaging work teams has its roots in the motivational approach to job design (Figure 4.4 in the text). However, most of the research shows these interventions increase employee satisfaction and performance quality, but not necessarily increase quantity of performance. Example: Duke Power Company redesigned its customer service function to be more decentralized and enriched the customer reps job to allow for more decisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœmaking authority. Whirlpool Corporation has also redesigned its customer service function by providing an 800 service line with customer reps that are often former service technicians and can help diagnose a problem over the phone. A related reading from Dushkins Annual Editions: Human Resources 99/00:  ¨Challenging Behaviorist Dogma: Myths About Money and Motivation Mechanistic Approach The mechanistic approach to job design has its roots in classical industrial engineering and focuses on designing jobs around the concepts of task specialization, skill simplification, and repetition. Scientific management, one of the earliest mechanistic approaches, sought to identify the one best way to perform the job through the use of time-and-motion studies. The scientific management approach was built upon in later years and resulted in a mechanistic approach that calls for the job to be designed very simply. The organization reduces its need for highà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœability individuals, and workers are easily replace ­able (a new employee can be trained to perform the job quickly and inexpensively). A related reading from Dushkins Annual Editions: Human Resources 99/00:  ¨HR Comes of Age by Michael Losey Biological Approach The biological approach to job design comes primarily from the sciences of biomechanics (the study of body movements), and it is usually referred to as ergonomics (concerned with examining the interface between individuals physiological characteristics and the physical work environment). The goal of this approach is to minimize the physical strain on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the way the body works. Example: At Toyotas high-tech Tahara No. 4 line, new electric vehicle carriers were installed to minimize stress on the workers bodies. They adjust a cars height at every workstation. Toyota reports a major reduction in turnover during the plants first year of operation. The biological approach focuses on outcomes such as physical fatigue, aches and pains, and health complaints. The biological approach has been applied in redesigning equip ­ment to reduce the physical demands so women can perform the jobs and to reduce occupational illnesses such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Perceptual/Motor Approach The perceptual/motor approach to job design has its roots in the humanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœfactors literature and focuses on human mental capabilities and limitations. The goal is to design jobs in a way that ensures they do not exceed peoples mental capabilities. This approach generally tries to improve reliability, safety, and user reactions by designing jobs in a way that reduces the infor ­mationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœprocessing requirements of the job. This approach, similar to the mechanistic approach, generally has the effect of decreasing the jobs cognitive demands. Trade-offs among Different Approaches for Job Design (See Table 4.5 in text and TM 4.7) One research study found job incumbents expressed higher satisfaction with jobs scoring highly on motivational approach. However, the motivational and mechanistic approaches were negatively related, suggesting that designing jobs to maximize efficiency is likely to result in a lower motivational component to those jobs. Jobs redesigned to increase the motivating potential result in higher costs in terms of ability requirements, training, and compensation. In designing jobs, it is important to understand the tradeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœoffs inherent in focusing on one particular approach to job design. Chapter Vocabulary These terms are defined in the Extended Chapter Outline section. Workà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ËœFlow Analysis Work Outputs ProMES Work Processes Work Inputs Organizational Structure Centralization Departmentation Functional Structure Divisional Structure Job Analysis Job Description Job Specification Job Element Method Fleishman Job Analysis System (FJAS) Task Analysis Inventory Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) Job Design Job Redesign Motivational Approach to Job Design Job Characteristics Model Mechanistic Approach to Job Design Biological Approach to Job Design Ergonomics Perceptual/Motor Approach to Job Design Discussion Questions Assume you are the manager of a fast-food restaurant. What are the outputs of your work unit? What are the activities required to produce those outputs? What are the inputs? Some examples of outputs for a fast-food restaurant include the food orders and the service provided. Activities required to produce these outputs include cooking, cleaning, preparing orders, taking orders, and so forth. The inputs include the raw materials (the ingredients for the food orders), the equipment (stove, cash register), and the human resources (the ability to cook, the knowledge of what ingredients go into a menu item). Based on question 1, consider the cashiers job. What are the outputs, activities, and inputs for that job? Inputs for the cashiers job include the raw inputs (food ordered, prices, tax), equipment (cash register), and human resources (the skill to operate the register, the knowledge of the prices of the menu items, and the ability to answer customers questions). Consider the job of college student. Perform a job analysis on this job. What are the tasks required in the job? What are the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform those tasks? What environmental trends or shocks (e.g., computers) might change the job, and how would that change the skill requirements? Tasks would include attending class, completing homework assignments, and participating in group assignments. Some examples of the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed are knowledge of prerequisite course material, collegeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœlevel reading skills, and ability to work together with others. Some environmental trends that might change the job would result from changes in the job market, such as new knowledge that employers would expect college students to learn. An example might be knowledge of sexual harassment guidelines or ADA legislation. Discuss how the following trends are changing the skill requirements for managerial jobs in the United States: (a) increasing use of computers, (b) increasing international competition, (c) increasing work-family conflicts. Students should have no trouble discussing how these trends are changing the skill requirements for managerial jobs in the United States. Managers are increasingly expected to be computer literate. Managers are also expected to be knowledgeable about other cultures, and knowledge of a second language is more commonly preferred. Managers are also expected to be more sensitive to work/ ­family conflicts (dayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœcare and elderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœcare issues for example) and to be knowledgeable about various legislation that deals with such situations (such as the FMLA). Why is it important for a manager to be able to conduct a job analysis? What are the negative outcomes that would result from not understanding the jobs of those reporting to the manager? The chapter has a section on the importance of job analysis to both HR managers and line managers. The students answers will probably reflect information in these sections as well as possible reasons of  ­their own. The negative outcomes of a manager not understanding the jobs of his or her subordinates are that the manager may not make intelligent hiring decisions, may not be able to adequately evaluate the performance of subordinates, and will have trouble understanding the workà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœflow process if individual jobs are not understood. What are the trade-offs between the different approaches to job design? Which approach do you think should be weighted most heavily when designing jobs? As discussed in the chapter, the trade-offs appear to be between increased satisfaction and motivation and reduced efficiency due to increased costs. For example, the motivational approach that increases satisfaction results in lower utilization levels and increased training time. Table 6.7 in the text summarizes the positive and negative outcomes of each approach. Students answers will vary as to which approach they think should be weighted most heavily depending on their value of the various outcomes for each approach. For the cashier in question 2, which approach to job design was most influential in designing that job? In the context of the total work-flow process of the restaurant, how would you redesign the job to more heavily emphasize each of the other approaches. Students answers will vary. All of the approaches could be used to design the cashiers job. To redesign the job to emphasize the mechanistic approach, students should discuss concepts such as more specialization. To redesign the job to emphasize the motivational approach, students should discuss making the job more complex. To redesign the job to emphasize the biological approach, students should discuss adjusting or making changes in the equipment or job environment. To redesign the job to emphasize the perceptual/motor approach, students should discuss ways to make the job less demanding mentally. Web Exercise Students are asked to go to The Center for Office Technologys homepage and click on the 1998 Outstanding Office Ergonomics Program Winner and review the steps organizations took to improve the office environment. www.cot.org End-of-Chapter Case The New Factory Worker Summary The trend toward high-skills manufacturing began in the mid-1980s with innovative companies such as Corning, Motorola, and Xerox. Companies are replacing assembly-line work with an industrial vision that requires skilled and nimble workers to think while they work. Today, life on the line requires more brains than muscle, so laborers are heading back to school. Examine the changes that have been made in Fred Prices job at Northeast tool, and then compare these to the four types of job design approaches described earlier in this chapter. If we had before-and-after measures on each of the four approaches, which would have revealed the largest change in the content of the job and which would have revealed the least: motivational, mechanistic, biological, or perceptual-motor? Knowing what you do about the trade-offs for various changes in job design, what negative outcomes might we fear from the types of changes brought about at Northeast? With the advent of more technology at the Northeast Tool plant, Fred Prices job has changed from a hands on, production line type job, to a job that requires increased education, leadership skills and managing roles. The largest change in the content of the job: Mechanistic; least amount of change; motivational. The negative outcomes might be: increased training time, lower utilization levels, greater chance of mental overload and stress, and greater likely hood of error. Technological changes, like the robotization of operations at Northeast Tool, can affect the structure of organizations, which in turn can change the level of skill requirements for workers. How did robotization affect the structure of Northeast Tool and the skill requirements for Fred Prices job? Can you think of other technological advancements that have resulted in the opposite affect on workers skill requirements? In what sense does the competitive strategy employed by the firm influence in which direction technology is likely to affect the skill level of workers? When Northeast implemented technological changes at its plant, Fred Prices job skill requirements changed. Before Price was the one doing all the work at the plant. Now, Fred Price has to be technologically savvy enough to control the robots that took his job from him. Any new type of technology that is implemented at Northeast is going to change the skill requirements of individuals jobs. When Fred Price started working for Northeast, he was 18 years old. Northeast supplied only to local California customers. Now, Northeast has to become a company, and even international, to stay competitive. With this type of growth, a company has to change to stay competitive. As we will see throughout this text, globalization has widespread effects on human resource practices. To what extent were the changes in jobs that came about at Northeast Tool driven by factors outside the U.S? If companies like Northeast Tool did not make these types of changes to compete, what other changes might they have had to make? If Fred Price was not willing to make the types of self-improvements he is making, what other types of changes would he have had to accept? What are the national implications of these kinds of changes, and how do these changes relate to the competitive advantage of nations like the U.S? The factors, outside of the U.S, that affected the changes at Northeast were the technologically savvy plants in Japan and Germany. To stay competitive in the global market, and even domestically, Northeast had to implement new technology. If Northeast was not willing to make these changes, then business would be hurt because it just could not compete with the bigger, more technologically sophisticated plants. Fred Price, if not willing to change, would have to settle for something less. These types of changes are at the core of our national competitiveness, the U.S. has been at the forefront in this productivity and competitive war and should continue to do so. Additional Activities Teaching Suggestions Several cases and articles can be used as additional activities when discussing the topic of job analysis and job design. The cases could be assigned to indi ­viduals as a writing assignment, possibly for extra credit, or could be assigned to groups to be done inside or outside of class. The articles could also be assigned and discussed in class. A possible library assignment is suggested to acquaint students with the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Harvard Business School Case 9à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ481à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ179, Office Technology, Inc. (A) by Beer, Von Werssowetz, and Witcraft, Teaching Note 5à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ485à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ021 by Beer and Spector. Robert Dorr must consider changes in several order administration work organizations that are to be consolidated. The separate units handle product lines with very different characteristics and have managers with different operating styles, philosophies, and personalities. One group is set up in an assembly-line style. Another has a team concept of job organization. Office Technology, Inc. (B) provides future developments. Two videotapes (9à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ884à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ512) and (9 ­884à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ513) are available for use with these cases. Suggested questions for Office Technology, Inc. Consider the order administration task. Discuss the process the LMP and OEM groups use to complete this task. How would you reorganize work in OEM? Consider case facts and class readings and lectures in formulating your answer. Discuss the rationale for your recommendations. If Dorr imposes an LMP-type team approach, what roadblock

Baldwins Insights of History in Notes of a Native Son Essay -- James

Private Insight into Public History James Baldwin had a talent of being able to tell a personal story and relate it to world events. His analysis is a rare capability that one can only acquire over an extensive lifetime. James Baldwin not only has that ability, but also the ability to write as if he is conversing with the reader. One of his most famous essays, â€Å"Notes of a Native Son,† is about his father’s death. It includes the events that happened prior to and following his father’s death. Throughout this essay, he brings his audience into the time in which he wrote and explains what is going on by portraying the senses and emotions of not only himself, but as well as the people involved. This essay has a very personal feeling mixed with public views. Baldwin is able to take one small event or idea and shows its place within the â€Å"bigger picture.† Not only does he illustrate public experiences, but he will also give his own personal opinion about those events. Throughout â€Å"Notes of a Native Son† Baldwin uses the binary of life versus death to expand on the private versus public binary that he also creates. These two binaries show up several times together showing how much they relate to each other. Baldwin makes certain readers understand the states of the issue at once; his essay starts by describing his father’s funeral in the aftermath of the Harlem riots of 1943. Baldwin states, â€Å"As we drove him to the graveyard, the spoils of injustice, anarchy, discountent, and hatred were all around us. It seemed to me that God himself had devised, to mark my father’s end, the most sustained and brutally dissonant of codas† (63). Yet as Baldwin mourned the death of his father, he celebrated the birth of his yo... ...e â€Å"big picture† in the world. Some events may not seem significant, but they are somehow related to other events that are going on in the world. Baldwin also took events that coincidentally happened at the same of his father’s death and analyzed them, giving his own personal opinion. Baldwin also had a constant motif of life versus death throughout his life story and his analysis of events. Baldwin’s creative writing skills show through his style of writing and makes the reader feel as though he is being directly spoken to. He gives the audience the opportunity to feel the emotions that he felt during these events. It is this ability that made James Baldwin the celebrated talent that he became. Works Cited Baldwin, James. â€Å"Notes of a Native Son.† 1955. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 63-84.

Linguistic Performance and Competence Essay

Linguistic Knowledge Speakers’ linguistic knowledge permits them to form longer and longer sentences by joining sentences and phases together or adding modifiers to a noun. whether you stop at three, five or eighteen adjectives, it is impossible to limit the number you could add if desired. Very long sentences are theoretically possible, but they are highly improbable. Evidently, there is a difference between having the knowledge necessary to produce sentences of a language, and applying this knowledge. It is a difference between what you know, which your linguistic competence  is, and how you use this knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension, which is your linguistic performance. Linguistic Performance Linguistic Performance – a speaker’s actual use of language in real situations; what the speaker actually says, including grammatical errors and other non-linguistic features such as hesitations and other disfluencies. When we speak, we usually wish to convey some message. At some stage in the act of producing speech, we must organize our thoughts into strings of words. Sometimes the message is garbled. We may stammer, or  pause, or produce slips of the tongue. We may even sound like the baby, who illustrates the difference between linguistic knowledge and the way we use that knowledge in performance. Linguistic Competence Linguistic competence is a term used by speech experts and anthropologists to describe how language is defined within a community of speakers. This term applies to mastering the combination of sounds, syntax and semantics known as the grammar of a language. †¢ACCORDING TO CHOMSKY, COMPETENCE IS THE ‘IDEAL’ LANGUAGE SYSTEM THAT makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite  number of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. oThis means a person’s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. Competence versus Performance â€Å"Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-communication, who know it’s (the speech community’s) language perfectly and that it is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in  applying his knowledge of this language in actual performance. â€Å" Chomsky differentiates competence, which is an idealized capacity, from performance being the production of actual utterances. According to him, competence is the ideal speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his or her language and it is the ‘mental reality’ which is responsible for all those aspects of language use which can be characterized as ‘linguistic’. Chomsky argues that only under an idealized situation whereby the speaker-hearer is unaffected by grammatically irrelevant conditions such as memory limitations and distractions  will performance be a direct reflection of competence. A sample of natural speech consisting of numerous false starts and other deviations will not provide such data. Therefore, he claims that a fundamental distinction has to be made between the competence and performance. Chomsky dismissed criticisms of delimiting the study of performance in favor of the study of underlying competence, as unwarranted and completely misdirected. He claims that the descriptivist limitation-in-principle to classification and organization of data, the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"extracting patterns† from a corpus of observed speech and the describing â€Å"speech habits† etc. are the core factors that precludes the development of a theory of actual performance. Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.